CONTENTS
Chapter 1 HUMANUM EST ERRARE .................................. 1
1.1 MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM, 1
1.2 AUTOMATION AND THE MAN'S CHANGING ROLE, 3
1.2.1 Trend toward automation
1.2.2 Common features of automation
1.2.3 Man's changing role
1.3 HUMAN ERRORS, 5
1.4 HUMAN INITIATED FAILURE, 8
1.5 HUMAN ERRORS IN PRODUCTION, 9
1.6 INSPECTION ERRORS AND PRODUCT QUALITY, 11
1.7 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN ERRORS IN SYSTEM SAFETY, 12
Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN ERROR .......................... 13
2.1 HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN A MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM, 13
2.1.1 Human behavioral elements: S-O-R paradigm
2.1.2 Types of human behavior
2.1.3 Basic functions of man
2.2 INFORMATION THEORY, 17
2.2.1 Information
2.2.2 Measurement of information
2.2.3 Multivariate information analysis
2.2.4 Channel capacity and matching
2.2.5 Infomational redundancy
2.2.6 Continuous information
2.2.7 Limitations in information measurement
2.3 HUMAN SENSING CAPABILITIES, 27
2.3.1 Sense modalities and sensitivity ranges
2.3.2 Relative discrimination
2.3.3 Visual acuity
2.3.4 Sensory disabilities
2.3.5 Reliability of human sensing
2.4 HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING CAPABILITIES, 33
2.4.1 Absolute judgments
2.4.2 Channel capacity
2.4.3 Information redundancy for transmission reliability
2.4.4 Information filtering and reduction process
2.4.5 Reaction time -- delay for information processing
2.4.6 Factors influencing reaction time
2.4.7 Computational ability and decision-making behavior
2.4.8 Pattern recognition
2.4.9 Factors affecting perceptual errors
2.5 HUMAN MEMORY, 53
2.5.1 Sensory memory
2.5.2 Short-term memory
2.5.3 Long-term memory
2.6 HUMAN MOTOR RESPONSE CAPABILITIES, 57
2.6.1 Motor control
2.6.2 Types of movements
2.6.3 Communication capacity
2.6.4 Human control dynamics
2.7 LEARNING, 68
2.7.1 Nature of learning
2.7.2 Learning principles
2.7.3 Learning curves
2.8 OTHER STRESS FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN PERFORMANCE, 71
2.8.1 Task related stress factors
2.8.2 Behavioral stress factors
2.8.3 Environmental stress factors
2.8.4 Fatigue
Chapter 3 HUMAN ERROR ........................................ 79
3.1 THE NATURE OF HUMAN ERROR, 79
3.1.1 What is human error?
3.1.2 Human error vs. machine failure phenomenon
3.1.3 Human error classification
3.1.4 Why people err
3.2 ANATOMY OF LARGE SCALE ACCIDENTS, 84
3.2.1 Tenerife collision
3.2.2 Three Mile Island accident
3.2.3 Other loss-of-coolant accidents in nuclear power plants
3.2.4 Chernobyl meltdown
3.3 HUMAN ERROR PREVENTIVE TECHNIQUES, 98
3.3.1 Improve the work situation
3.3.2 Change the personnel
3.3.3 Reduce the system impact
Chapter 4 HUMAN ENGINEERING IN SYSTEMS DESIGN ............... 101
4.1 HUMAN ENGINEERING, 101
4.1.1 Human engineering defined
4.1.2 A poignant example of HE application
4.1.3 HE ramifications
4.1.4 HE for reliability
4.2 MAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS DESIGN, 103
4.2.1 HE and training
4.2.2 Allocation of functions between man and machine
4.2.3 Task analysis
4.2.4 Anthropometric considerations
4.2.5 HE checklist
4.3 HUMAN AS SENSOR, 108
4.3.1 Types of information and uses of displays
4.3.2 Selection of sensory modality
4.3.3 Use of coding in displays
4.3.4 Design features of visual displays
4.3.5 Design features of auditory displays
4.4 HUMAN AS INFORMATION PROCESSOR, 116
4.4.1 Population stereotypes
4.4.2 Compatibility
4.5 HUMAN AS CONTROLLER, 118
4.5.1 Types and choice of controls
4.5.2 Design principles
4.5.3 Location and arrangement of controls
4.5.4 Protection from inadvertent actuation
4.5.5 Fail-safe designs
4.6 WORKING CONDITIONS, 125
4.6.1 Illumination
4.6.2 Temperature and humidity
.4.7 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION, 127
4.7.1 Computer systems
4.7.2 Data entry devices
4.7.3 Selection of user languages
4.7.4 Output design factors
4.7.5 Human error in computer-based information systems
4.8 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS AND ROBOTICS, 136
4.8.1 Flexible manufacturing system
4.8.2 Industrial robotics
4.9 THE VALUES OF HUMAN ENGINEERING, 146
Chapter 5 BASIC CONCEPTS AND MEASURES OF RELIABILITY ........ 149
5.1 RELIABILITY, 149
5.1.1 Definition
5.1.2 Types of failures
5.2 BASIC RELIABILITY CONCEPTS AN DERIVATIONS, 150
5.2.1 Failure distribution, reliability, and failure rate
5.2.2 Relationship among the failure related functions
5.2.3 Mean time to failure
5.2.4 Superposition of failure rates
5.3 BASIC FAILURE LAWS, 153
5.3.1 Exponential distribution
5.3.2 Weibull distribution
5.3.3 Gamma distribution
5.3.4 Normal distribution
5.3.5 Antilog-normal distribution
5.3.6 Determining the underlying distribution
5.4 RENEWALTHEORY, 159
5.4.1 Density functions for renewal times
5.4.2 Number of renewals
5.4.3 Renewal function and renewal rate
5.4.4 Limit theorems
5.4.5 Superposition of renewal processes
5.5 ALTERNATING RENEWAL PROCESS ANDAVAILABILITY, 163
5.5.1 Alternating renewal process
5.5.2 Availability
5.6 NONHOMOGENEOUS POISSON PROCESS, 166
5.6.1 Number of renewals
5.6.2 Inter-arrival times
Chapter 6 ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM RELIABILITY .................... 169
6.1 SYSTEM RELIABILITY MODELS, 169
6.1.1 Series configuration
6.1.2 Parallel configuration
6.1.3 k-out-of-n configuration
6.1.4 Standby redundant systems
6.2 ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS, 172
6.2.1 Minimal cut-set technique
6.2.2 Minimal tie-set technique
6.2.3 Structure function
6.2.4 Monte Carlo simulation for system reliability
6.3 SPECIAL SYSTEMS, 178
6.3.1 Multistate device reliability
6.3.2 Common-cause failures
6.3.3 Dependent failures
6.3.4 Phased-mission reliability
6.4 RELIABILITY OPTIMIZATION, 185
6.4.1 Reliability apportionment
6.4.2 Optimal component-redundancy
6.4.3 Optimal system-redundancy
6.4.4 Optimal redundancy in general structures
Chapter 7 HUMAN RELIABILITY PREDICTION ...................... 191
7.1 MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN ERROR, 191
7.1.1 Human error probability in discrete tasks
7.1.2 Human error rate in continuous tasks
7.2 HUMAN RELIABILITY, 201
7.2.1 Human reliability in repetitive discrete tasks
7.2.2 Human reliability in time-continuous tasks
7.2.3 Personnel redundancy
7.2.4 Synthesis of machine reliability and human
reliability
7.3 PREDICTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR HUMAN ERROR PROBABILITIES, 207
7.3.1 Early history of human reliability prediction
7.3.2 Approaches for prediction
7.3.3 General procedure for prediction
7.3.4 Objections to quantitative analyses
7.4 CRITICAL INCIDENCE TECHNIQUE, 210
7.4.1 Critical incidents
7.4.2 Early applications
7.4.3 Correlation between critical incidents and accidents
7.4.4 Shortcomings of the CIT
7.5 HUMAN ERROR DATA BANKS, 213
7.5.1 Empirical task data
7.5.2 Judgmental task data
7.5.3 Other human error data bases
7.6 TASK CRITICALITY ANALYSIS, 216
7.6.1 Introduction
7.6.2 Task identification and description
7.6.3 Discontinuous analysis
7.6.4 Error analysis
7.7 TECHNIQUE FOR HUMAN ERROR RATE PREDICTION (THERP), 222
7.7.1 Description of THERP
7.7.2 Human-reliability-analysis event trees
7.7.3 Data sources for human error probabilities
7.7.4 Dependence
7.7.5 Outputs of THERP and sensitivity analysis
7.7.6 An example using THERP
7.7.7 Accuracy of predictions using THERP
7.8 OPERATOR-ACTION TREE METHODOLOGY, 233
7.8.1 Operator-action tree
7.8.2 Steps of the OAT methodology
7.8.3 Limitations of the OAT methodology
7.9 FAULT-TREE ANALYSIS, 236
7.9.1 Introduction
7.9.2 Gate operations and event symbols
7.9.3 FTA steps
7.9.4 System identification and fault tree construction
7.9.5 Qualitative analysis
7.9.6 Quantitative analysis
7.9.7 Monte Carlo simulation of fault trees
7.9.8 Weaknesses of FTA
.7.10 FAULT-TREE ANALYSIS OF INTERMITTENT EVENTS, 248
7.10.1 Introduction
7.10.2 Gate operations for intermittent events
7.10.3 Numerical example
7.10.4 Validation by simulation
7.10.5 Conclusion
7.11 DIGITAL SIMULATION FOR HUMAN RELIABILITY PREDICTION, 255
7.11.1 Monte Carlo simulation
7.11.2 Deterministic simulation
Chapter 8 NEW HORIZONS ...................................... 259
8.1 HUMAN ERROR AND LEARNING, 259
8.1.1 Introduction
8.1.2 Discrete tasks
8.1.3 Time-continuous tasks
8.1.4 Numerical example
8.1.5 Conclusions
8.2 HUMAN ERROR IN INDUSTRIAL QUALITY INSPECTION, 269
8.2.1 Inspection and inspection error
8.2.2 Theory of signal detection
8.2.3 Detectability of defects
8.2.4 Decision-making in inspection
8.2.5 Personal qualities and training
8.2.6 Behavioral and organizational factors
8.3 HUMAN ERROR IN MAINTENANCE, 281
8.3.1 Maintenance and its working conditions
8.3.2 Designing for maintainability
8.3.3 Effect of human error on system availability
8.3.4 Troubleshooting
8.4 APPLICATION OF OPTIMAL CONTROL MODELS TO HUMAN RELIABILITY ANALYSIS, 288
8.4.1 State variable description of dynamic systems
8.4.2 Reliability of human optimal-controller
8.4.3 Human optimal-monitor model for process failure detection
8.5 PROGRAMMING ERROR AND SOFTWARERELIABILITY, 298
8.5.1 HE aspects in computer programming
8.5.2 Software reliability
8.5.3 Software reliability models
8.6 FUZZY SETS AND APPLICATIONS, 303
8.6.1 Basic fuzzy set theory
8.6.2 Linguistic approximation
8.6.3 Applications of FS theory
8.7 IMPACT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS ON MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM RELIABILITY, 309
8.7.1 Artificial intelligence
8.7.2 Expert systems
REFERENCES .................................................... 315
SUBJECT INDEX ................................................. 333